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School Discipline

Disparities in School Discipline

Secondary schools suspend or expel two million students each year, mostly for non-violent offenses such as disruption, disrespect, tardiness and dress code violations. Research shows that getting suspended or expelled increases students’ risk for falling into unproductive behavior, affecting their social-emotional development, academic performance, and life trajectories. 

Studies also find that positive approaches to school discipline at all ages can actually improve students' academic performance, and those students are less likely to become involved in the juvenile justice system or have need for behavioral services.

Recently the U.S. Department of Education issued guidelines that recommended public school officials use new approaches to help reduce the time students spend out of school as punishment.

These AIR websites, toolkits, and resources support educators in their efforts to transform disciplinary practices in our nation’s schools. We also hear from the students themselves.

  • Learn about SEL Solutions, our services in Social and Emotional Learning >>

Latest Work

15 Aug 2020
Spotlight

Spotlight on School Climate

Accurately measuring school climate helps schools identify areas of improvement and choose evidence-based interventions for effecting positive change. Read what our researchers are finding out about how learning environments affect whether students feel—and are—safe, connected, supported, and challenged.
Young children arm in arm
5 Sep 2018
Spotlight

Building Safe, Engaging, and Equitable Schools

There are no quick fixes or easy solutions to respond to the tragedies that have occurred in schools across the country—but there are evidence-based ways to change school environments so that students and teachers feel safer.
Image of teacher with middle school students
2 Mar 2018
Spotlight

Social and Emotional Learning: Creating Supportive Learning Environments for All

Recent research has demonstrated that when schools and districts focus on social and emotional learning (SEL), students’ academic achievement, prosocial behaviors, and positive attitudes improve, while their behavior problems and emotional distress decrease. Explore these selected resources, tools, and reports to discover our research and technical assistance on SEL practices.
In 2015, about 15 percent of U.S. fourth-graders and 7 percent of U.S. eighth-graders reported experiencing bullying at least once a month. These percentages were lower than the international averages of 16 and 8 percent
18 May 2017
Infographic

Indicators of School Crime and Safety 2016 Compares Bullying Internationally

According to data from the 2016 Indicators of School Crime and Safety report, in 2015, about 15 percent of U.S. fourth-graders and 7 percent of U.S. eighth-graders reported experiencing bullying at least once a month. These percentages were lower than the international averages of 16 and 8 percent; this infographic breaks down the differences by country.
7 Feb 2017
In the Field

Reducing School Suspensions and Expulsions in Michigan

Statewide suspension rates in Michigan were high, and discipline policies in many schools were in direct conflict with its priority of reducing barriers to learning. With support from the Great Lakes Comprehensive Center, the Michigan Department of Education formed the Michigan School Discipline Task Force in 2013, to develop a model policy on reducing suspensions and expulsions using alternative discipline strategies; a revised model student code of conduct; and an online toolkit for schools and districts on how to implement the new policy and code.
18 Jan 2017
Video

Supporting States to Close the Education Achievement Gap

The achievement gap, which refers to the disparity in academic performance between groups of students, is a pressing issue facing K-12 education. AIR is supporting states to close academic achievement gaps through strategies including alternative school discipline policies, GIS mapping, improved early childhood education, and culturally responsive instruction. In this video, the four directors of the federally funded regional Comprehensive Centers discuss promising approaches in Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, and Texas.
1 Jan 2017
ESSA

ESSA │Supporting At-Risk Students

Students at risk of high school dropout often miss school, fail courses, and account for many disciplinary actions and suspensions. Some end up in the criminal justice system. Risk and protective factors and early warning systems can play an integral role in promoting graduation and success for all. AIR has a variety of informative literature, videos, blog posts and early warning tools that are available.
1 Jan 2017
ESSA

ESSA │School Discipline

Secondary schools suspend or expel two million students each year, mostly for non-violent offenses such as disruption, disrespect, tardiness and dress code violations. Research shows that getting suspended or expelled increases students’ risk for falling into unproductive behavior, affecting their social-emotional development, academic performance, and life trajectories. AIR has developed toolkits and resources to support educators in their efforts to transform disciplinary practices in our nation’s schools.
1 Jan 2017
ESSA

ESSA │School Climate and Safety

Many factors affect school climate and safety, determining the conditions for learning and teaching. By managing engagement, safety, and a supportive learning environment properly, schools at all levels can grow stronger. AIR has developed toolkits and resources to support educators in their efforts to transform school climate and improve safety in our nation’s schools.
Among students who started high school in 2009, a higher percentage of Black students than of Hispanic, White, and Asian students had ever been suspended or expelled by 2012.
24 Oct 2016
Infographic

Infographic: School Suspensions and Expulsions

How do suspensions and expulsions differ for students from various racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds?
David Osher
16 Feb 2016
Blog Post

Beyond Shame and Blame in the Classroom

On February 12th, a New York Times story linked to a video of a teacher in a well-known New York City charter school losing her temper and humiliating a first grader. In this blog post, Angela Minnici and David Osher contend that the video and some reactions to it reveal a faulty understanding of the kind of educational experiences students—especially the most vulnerable—need to succeed in school, career, and civic life and of the role the adults play in creating those experiences.
23 Dec 2015
Blog Post

New Year's Resolution for Policymakers: End Zero Tolerance

Zero tolerance policies were born out of fear and even desperation. After the 1999 school shootings in Colorado, some educators and public figures adopted a tough law-and-order stance; but, instead of deterrence, we got a discipline regime of mass suspensions. In this blog post, AIR's Peter Cookson argues that zero tolerance discipline and other failed, counter-productive policies should disappear into the void.
David Osher
21 Dec 2015
Blog Post

Zero Tolerance and Bias Reinforce the School-to-Prison Pipeline

Schools must be places of safety and support for all students. And yet, in an effort to make our schools safe havens, districts have adopted zero-tolerance policies and increased school policing. The result, however, has driven some of our most vulnerable students out of school and into a judicial system often built for punishment rather than support: the school-to-prison pipeline. In this blog post, AIR’s Jeffrey Poirier and David Osher argue that re-evaluating zero tolerance policies, training staff to deal with non-threatening but disruptive student behaviors, and working to eliminate bias can go a long way to ending the school-to-prison pipeline.
Georgetown School-Justice Partnerships Certificate Program video
13 Nov 2015
Video

How Research Can Offer Solutions to the School-to-Prison Pipeline

Helping youth at risk escape the school-to-prison pipeline is a growing concern for educators, researchers, communities and providers. The School-Justice Partnerships Certificate Program, the first of its kind, brings together Georgetown University's Center for Juvenile Justice Reform, AIR experts, and educational and juvenile justice leaders to provide research-based solutions for those who work with youth at risk. In this video, experts speak to their experiences addressing the school-to-prison pipeline and how the program can help.
28 Oct 2015
Service

Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) Solutions at AIR

Practitioners and researchers agree that social and emotional learning (SEL) is essential to academic achievement and well-being in school, as well as success in college and career. Above and beyond the free supports that AIR’s federal technical assistance centers provide, SEL Solutions at AIR offers an approach to keep social and emotional learning at the center of students’ educational experiences.
31 Aug 2015
Report

Advancing School Discipline Reform

During the past two decades, there has been an increase in exclusionary and punitive discipline in US schools. These disciplinary approaches have been discriminatory in their impacts and have failed to improve school safety. Luckily, a growing body of evidence shows that changing discipline policies and practices can improve school climate and student achievement. This report focuses on how to address students’ behavioral issues while enabling them to succeed.
25 Jul 2015
Guide

Addressing the Root Causes of Disparities in School Discipline: An Educator’s Action Planning Guide

Discriminatory discipline practices in our nation’s schools disproportionately impact students of color; students with emotional, behavioral, and cognitive disabilities; and youth who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning, and the impact on students, families, schools, and the community is serious. This guide provides tools to assess and systematically address disparities in school discipline. It describes how to carry out a descriptive analysis of disparities in school discipline and how to conduct a root cause analysis to systematically address school-based factors that contribute to disparities.
teenager talks about exclusionary discipline
24 Jul 2015
Spotlight

Exclusionary School Discipline

Recently experts from across the nation convened at the White House to discuss best practices that foster safe, supportive, and productive learning environments that keep kids in school and out of the juvenile justice system. A planning guide aimed at promoting positive school climates and ending disparities in administering student discipline, Addressing the Root Causes of Disparities in School Discipline, An Educator’s Guide, developed and written by AIR experts, was released at the event.
teenager talks about exclusionary discipline
22 Jul 2015
Video

Young People Speak Out About Exclusionary School Discipline

AIR experts David Osher and Sandra Williamson were at the White House this week speaking at the national convening to "Rethink School Discipline." In this video from an earlier event, we hear from students themselves.
12 Feb 2014
Commentary

Do We Need to Use Seclusion and Restraint in Our Schools?

All public and private educational settings should provide nurturing environments that support student learning and development. Unfortunately, some students with emotional and behavioral challenges and disorders experience seclusion or restraint instead.

Racial Disparities in School Discipline Infographic
29 Jan 2014
Infographic

Disparities in School Discipline by Race

The disproportionate effects of harsh, exclusionary school discipline are the impetus behind research into disparities in school discipline and the negative effects of exclusionary discipline. This infographic shows the differences in school discipline by race.
17 Jan 2014
Toolkit

Bringing Positive Discipline to Schools

Students who are suspended and expelled are more likely to be held back a grade, drop out and become involved with the juvenile justice system. With leadership from the U.S. Departments of Education and Justice, AIR has played a key role in developing and disseminating components of the recently released school discipline guidance package.
Project

National Clearinghouse on Supportive School Discipline

The National Clearinghouse on Supportive School Discipline supports educational practitioners in their efforts to transform the conditions for learning as well as harsh, exclusionary and disproportionate disciplinary practices in our nation's schools.
9 Sep 2013
Report

Roundtable: The Perspectives of Youth Affected by Exclusionary School Discipline

Exclusionary school discipline policies once instituted to prevent serious infractions have crept into discipline practices for minor issues. Youth who participated in a roundtable on the subject contend that it limits opportunities to learn and compromises academic achievement; is applied disproportionately and subjectively; and deprives students of the support services they need.
Project

School Climate Survey Compendium

The National Center on Safe Supportive Learning Environments (NCSSLE) maintains a compendium of valid and reliable surveys, assessments, and scales of school climate that can assist educators in their efforts to identify and assess their conditions for learning. The intent of this compendium is to gather student, faculty and staff, family, administrator, and community surveys in Pre-K/Elementary School, middle and high school, and higher education environments. The surveys can be used in whole or in part; that is, whole surveys or individual scales can be administered to target respondents. All scales in the compendium have been tested for validity and reliability.
4 Feb 2013
Report

Avoid Simple Solutions and Quick Fixes: Improving Conditions for Learning

The Cleveland School District and AIR implemented a districtwide effort to improve safety, order, and conditions for learning, including social and emotional competence, connectedness to caring adults and peers, and the experience of emotional and physical safety.  Findings included improved conditions for learning, better attendance, decreased disruptive behavior, and fewer suspensions.

16 Jan 2013 | 12:00 AM - 12:00 AM
Event

“Roundtable: The Perspectives of Young People Affected by Harsh Discipline” Engages Youth to Reduce the School-to-Prison Pipeline

Nineteen youths accepted AIR’s invitation to talk about how harsh school discipline has impacted them and the risks and challenges of the “school-to-prison” pipeline in front of an audience of policymakers and practitioners who work on juvenile justice and related issues. The participants, ages 16 to 24, spoke at the January 16 listening session, “Roundtable: The Perspectives of Young People Affected by Harsh School Discipline” at AIR headquarters in Washington, D.C.

12 Dec 2012
Report

Keeping Young People Out of Prison and in the Classroom

Today, nearly 95,000 youth under the age of 21 are in custody in publicly and privately operated facilities in the U.S. Increasingly, youth are finding themselves involved in the juvenile justice system as a result of school-related conduct. Researchers suggest that this trend, known as the “school-to-prison pipeline,” is an unintended consequence of harsh school discipline policies such as “zero tolerance” and referring students to the police or courts for school code violations historically handled by schools.

29 Jul 2011
Brochure

The Good Behavior Game: Success in the Classroom and Beyond

AIR provides a comprehensive approach to training, on-site coaching, and program oversight to realize positive results from the Good Behavior Game.

Project

Improving Student Behavior in Houston With the Good Behavior Game

In 2009, HISD partnered with AIR to implement the Good Behavior Game in first- and second-grade classrooms, with a grant funded by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. By 2015, more than 100 teachers will be trained, and more than 7,000 children will have been reached.

21 Jun 2011
Brochure

Good Behavior Game Research, Training and Support

The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is a team-based classroom behavior management strategy that helps young children master the role of student while developing the discipline needed to sit still, pay attention and complete their school work. AIR works with school districts and communities on all aspects of GBG implementation.

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David Osher

David Osher

Vice President and Institute Fellow

Sandra Williamson

Vice President

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