Special Education

Image of young student using assistive technology with teacher

Before 1975, only one in five children with disabilities attended public school. Federal legislation changed that. With more than 6 million children receiving special education services, educators, parents, and providers face many challenges on the road to improving outcomes—and improving lives—for students with disabilities.

Our Work

AIR conducts federal, state, and local projects designed to improve outcomes for students with disabilities and their families. We offer training and technical assistance support for implementing evidence-based practices in each of the 50 states and ten U.S. territories, as well as in hundreds of local school districts.

Our areas of expertise include

We also develop projects that analyze and synthesize information related to policy initiatives in special education and early intervention and conduct cutting-edge research on emerging, high-priority topics related to special education.

Latest Work

23 Jul 2020
Podcast

AIR Informs: Responding to the Challenges of the COVID-19 Pandemic

AIR takes an evidence-based approach to its research, evaluation, training, and technical assistance work on a daily basis. For our latest podcast series, AIR Informs, AIR experts explore the different ways the coronavirus pandemic is affecting our lives and how we can address the challenges it presents.
Image of young girl learning at her laptop
20 Jul 2020
In the Field

Digital Accessibility: How Schools and Teachers Can Support Students with Disabilities in Remote Learning

Keeping an eye on issues of equity in remote learning environments can seem overwhelming, particularly when moving teaching and learning from the classroom to an online platform. Taking the time to address digital accessibility has an overarching benefit: Universally designed and accessible learning materials can benefit all learners.
14 May 2020
Podcast

AIR Informs Episode #6: Meeting the Needs of Students with Disabilities During COVID-19

Remote learning requires adjustment for all students, but students with disabilities face additional challenges during the COVID-19 quarantine. In this episode of AIR Informs, Allison Gandhi describes some of these obstacles, as well as strategies to help students, schools, and families make the most of this time.
Illustration of AIR expert Allison Gandhi
14 May 2020
Q & A

Meet the Expert: Allison Gandhi

Managing Director Allison Gandhi directs and implements large research projects at AIR and oversees the organization’s special education practice area. In this Q&A, she discusses her work and identifies trends to watch in special education over the next five to ten years.
Project

National Survey of Public Education’s Response to COVID-19

To improve services to students and families, we need information on what districts and charter management organizations are doing and plan to do to address COVID-19. From mid-May through July 2020, we are asking school district and charter management organization leaders to respond to a nationally representative survey of school districts and charter management organizations—more than 2,500 in total—about the actions they have taken and the challenges they have encountered during the COVID-19-related school closures.
Project

PROGRESS Center (Promoting Rigorous Outcomes & Growth by Redesigning Educational Services for Students with Disabilities)

The PROGRESS Center provides information, resources, and support for local educators and leaders responsible for the development and implementation of high-quality educational programs that ensure students with disabilities have access to free appropriate public education (FAPE) and that enables them to make progress and meet challenging goals
Image of teacher and students building a robot
12 Jun 2019
Toolkit

Inclusive Technology in a 21st Century Learning System

Technology is a part of nearly every aspect of our daily lives—including the public education system. AIR, the National Center for Learning Disabilities, and more than 10 other organizations collaborated on the development of publications to ensure educational technology conception, design, procurement, use, and evaluation close rather than widen opportunity gaps between students with and without disabilities.
Project

Rethinking Special Education Certification in Texas

Texas public schools provide special education services to almost 500,000 students. Despite these services, students with disabilities perform significantly lower on state assessments in reading and mathematics than their same-aged peers.
Project

Special Olympics Unified Champion Schools Evaluation

The Special Olympics Unified Champion Schools model is a whole-school intervention that aims to promote social inclusion of students with intellectual disabilities in their schools through inclusive activities that occur within the normative contexts of the school. Key inclusive strategies include unified sports, inclusive youth leadership, and whole-school awareness and engagement. AIR is studying the impact of the model on schoolwide academic performance, measured by overall school performance on graduation rates and dropout rates.
Project

Special Olympics Global Evaluation

The Special Olympics Unified Schools program creates opportunities for the social inclusion of youth with intellectual disabilities through Unified Sports, Inclusive Youth Leadership development, and Whole School Engagement activities; however, little is known about whether this program has similar effects outside the United States. To support Special Olympics in increasing its evaluation efforts of Unified Schools programs internationally, AIR partnered with Special Olympics International to develop an evaluation framework that will serve as a guide for future international evaluations.
Image of The Ten Series cover
3 Dec 2018
Brief

ESSA and Digital Learning: Closing the Digital Accessibility Gap

Educators have an unprecedented opportunity to rethink how their technology initiatives reach all learners, including those with disabilities and those with limited English proficiency. How should they approach this opportunity? What is most important to consider? This edition of The 10 Series answers those questions and more.
Image: Boy in wheelchair at desk
10 Jul 2018
Report

Fulfilling the Promise of IDEA

In the 40+ years since the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was enacted, the law has changed the landscape for students with disabilities. This report is the result of a working meeting of special education experts and stakeholders held to consider the challenges and opportunities for strengthening special education services and improving student outcomes.
13 Jan 2018
Report

Special Education Enrollment and Classification in Louisiana Charter Schools and Traditional Schools

Serving students with an individualized education program, which entitles them to special education services, can be a challenge for charter and traditional schools. This study is an exploratory analysis of special education enrollment rates in charter schools and traditional schools, as well as of factors associated with variations in classification and enrollment rates of students with an individualized education program across school types in the four educational regions of Louisiana that have three or more charter schools.
26 Oct 2017 | 11:00 AM - 12:00 PM
Event

Do Teachers Teach Less in Classrooms with Students with Special Needs? Trends and Predictors from International Data

On October 26, 2017, AIR hosted a presentation and discussion on the inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms, a cornerstone of special education policy in the United States and many countries. Using 2013 data from the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS), the presentation addressed some parents' concern that, due to the additional needs of students with disabilities, teachers may spend less time teaching in inclusive classrooms.
1 Sep 2017
Brief

Supporting English Learners and Students with Disabilities: Strategies from Turnaround Schools in Massachusetts

Meeting the needs of English learners (ELs) and students with disabilities (SWDs) is a critical yet challenging responsibility for all schools. This brief highlights four key strategies that emerged from the exploration of practices and systems in place in Massachusetts turnaround schools that successfully provide appropriate interventions to all of their ELs and SWDs.
Image of Allison Gandhi
2 May 2017
Blog Post

What Will It Take to Meet New Mandate for Students with Disabilities?

In the more than 40 years since the IDEA was passed, educational outcomes for students with disabilities have improved, but large achievement gaps remain between students with and without disabilities. In this blog post, Allison Gandhi and Louis Danielson explore how states can ensure that students with disabilities receive meaningful educational benefits, as guaranteed by IDEA—and now required by a Supreme Court decision.
10 Steps to Make RTI Work in Schools - Cover
17 Apr 2017
Brief

Ten Steps to Make RTI Work in Schools

After test scores on a state language arts assessment at P.S. 52 Sheepshead Bay School in Brooklyn were unsatisfactory, the school's principal searched for a way to improve academic outcomes for his students. Partnering with AIR, the school used response to intervention, a research-based framework that uses data-based decision-making and three levels of instruction to address a wide range of student needs. Here's what they learned.
1 Jan 2017
ESSA

ESSA │Students with Disabilities

Before 1975, only one in five children with disabilities attended public school The passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act [IDEA]) changed that. AIR conducts federal, state, and local projects designed to improve outcomes for students with disabilities and their families.
30 Jun 2016 | 1:00 PM - 2:30 PM
Event

RTI Reaches Adolescence: Will It Make It to Adulthood? A Case for Cautious Optimism

As response to intervention (RTI) grows into its adolescence, questions about efficacy and challenges with implementation have emerged. The Center on RTI hosted a webinar, during which panelists addressed findings from the recent Institute of Education Sciences' evaluation of RTI, as well as lessons learned from state and local evaluations of implementation. Experts discussed how use of increasingly available high-quality resources, combined with intensive, comprehensive implementation, provide reasons for optimism that RTI can indeed progress from a tumultuous adolescence to successful adulthood.
Teri Marx
15 Jun 2016
Blog Post

How Can ESSA Help Students With Disabilities?

While the special education community awaits reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), new provisions in the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) could have positive impacts on special education, students with disabilities, and possibly the IDEA itself. In this blog post, Teri Marx says that without explicitly addressing the needs of students of with disabilities, ESSA demands that states improve student performance and prepare all students for college and careers.
Lynn Holdheide
15 Apr 2016
Video

Long Story Short: How Can We Alleviate the Shortage of Special Education Teachers?

In this video interview, Lynn Holdheide discusses her work with the Collaboration for Effective Educator Development, Accountability and Reform Center to address the shortage and support students with disabilities.
17 Feb 2016
Blog Post

Critical Shortages in Special Education Teachers. Sound Familiar?

Teacher shortages may be the most acute problem in special education. In this blog post, Lynn Holdheide and Jenny DeMonte explore the issue and ask, "What drives special education teachers out of that role? And how can we keep them?"
19 Jan 2016 | 9:30 AM - 2:30 PM
Event

Event Highlights - California's Emerging Teacher Shortage: New Evidence and Policy Responses

California’s supply of teachers is at a 12-year low. The trend continues as enrollment in educator preparation programs has dropped by more than 70 percent in the last decade.

15 Dec 2015
Blog Post

Meet Three Charter Schools Successfully Serving Students with Disabilities

Charter schools were created to give parents more options for their children. With greater freedom to innovate than traditional public school classrooms, some charter schools may hold particular promise for students with disabilities, who by law are entitled to receive an education tailor-made to their needs. Zena Rudo tells the stories of three charter schools where students with disabilities exceeded district achievement averages for reading and math.
11 Dec 2015
Blog Post

Forty Years Later, IDEA Still Seeks Success for Students with Disabilities

Forty years ago, President Gerald Ford signed the Education of All Handicapped Children’s Act, now known as IDEA: the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Three waves of legislative reform since then have continued to strengthen access and emphasize academic success for all students. In this blog post, AIR expert Louis Danielson discusses the law's evolution and its continued commitment to greater educational accountability, inclusion, and quality for all students.
Video: Anniversary of the IDEA
10 Dec 2015
Video

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act: 40 Years Later

Before 1975, only one in five children with disabilities attended public school. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act changed that. AIR Managing Director Louis Danielson discusses the evolution of the IDEA and its continued commitment to greater educational accountability, inclusion, and quality for all students.
two workers with disabilities at computers
29 Nov 2015
Longform Essay

Moving Forward, Looking Back: Landmark Legislation for Americans with Disabilities

On the 25th anniversary of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and the 40th anniversary of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 2015, AIR experts reflected on an era of research on the classroom and the workplace, their personal stories, and the future.
31 Aug 2015
Report

Deeper Learning for Students with Disabilities

The majority of students with disabilities spend most of the school day in general education classes and most are capable of meeting the goals described by advocates of deeper learning. In this report, we review previous efforts to promote better educational outcomes for students with disabilities.
Project

Center for IDEA Fiscal Reporting (CIFR)

The Center for IDEA Fiscal Reporting (CIFR) provides technical assistance to states to help staff better understand IDEA fiscal requirements and to improve state capacity to calculate, collect, and report accurate special education fiscal data. CIFR is a partnership among AIR, WestEd, the Center for Technical Assistance for Excellence in Special Education, and Westat.
1 Sep 2014
Service

Client Services in State and Local Evaluation

AIR’s state and local evaluation projects marshal a broad range of expertise and resources to support state education agencies and district offices as they decide whether to retain, revise, or end a policy or program. The projects address challenges in district and school reform, educator quality, special education, school financing, STEM, literacy, virtual learning, extended learning, English learning, early childhood education, and college and career readiness.
Teaching Exceptional Children cover
16 May 2014
Spotlight

Intensive Intervention: Helping Students with Learning and Behavioral Challenges

Too many students, especially those with disabilities, lack basic reading and math skills or have serious disciplinary problems in school. In a special issue of Teaching Exceptional Children, edited by AIR's Maurice McInerney, experts from the National Center on Intensive Intervention offer educators practical suggestions to help meet the needs of students who have seemingly intractable learning and behavioral challenges.
7 May 2014
Video

Long Story Short: Why Is Intensive Intervention Critical for Students with Disabilities?

Educational achievement rates for students with disabilities lag behind those of their peers without disabilities. In this video interview, Rebecca Zumeta, senior researcher at AIR, explains how intensive intervention can help students with disabilities succeed academically.
8 May 2013
Guide

Using a Response to Intervention (RTI) Framework to Improve Student Learning

This pocket guide from AIR helps policymakers and practitioners adapt federal program funds to improve teaching and learning for all students. It is the third in a series on implementing ESEA flexibility plans.

Project

PowerUp WHAT WORKS

The PowerUp WHAT WORKS website offers free resources, materials and information to help educators ensure that their students, especially those with disabilities, meet the Common Core State Standards. PowerUp offers support for ongoing personal and professional learning through its resource library, which includes instructional strategy guides in English language arts and math, professional development facilitator guides, technology implementation guides and more.
12 Feb 2013
Toolkit

Special Education Start-Up and Implementation Tools for Charter School Leaders and Special Education Managers

This user-friendly guidebook and toolkit was developed by special education experts to support charter school leaders and special education managers as they build special education programs to serve students with disabilities.

21 Jun 2012
Commentary

Special Olympics--Making a Difference, in One Way or Another

In this blog post, David Osher, AIR vice president and international expert on school climate, social emotional learning, and student support, shares an interesting perspective about making a difference through school climate.

12 Jun 2012
Report

The Inclusion of Students with Disabilities in School Accountability Systems

A new report by experts at AIR offers descriptive information on the inclusion of students with disabilities in school accountability systems under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act.

13 Feb 2012
Guide

Reauthorizing ESEA: Students with Disabilities Pocket Guide

The Reauthorizing ESEA Pocket Guides are written by AIR experts to assist policymakers and educators as they consider changes to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA).

1 Sep 2011
Report

Wisconsin Culturally Responsive Education for All (CREATE) Initiative - Training and Enhancement Initiative

The Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction contracted with AIR to provide a comprehensive evaluation of its Culturally Responsive Education for All: Training and Enhancement (CREATE) initiative during its first three years of implementation. AIR employed a qualitative case study design to assess program implementation and to determine the effect participation in the CREATE initiative had on districts’ capacities to provide culturally responsive education and to implement policies and practices designed to close achievement gaps and reduce disproportionality in special education.

26 Oct 2010
Report

National Leaders Explore Technology Issues During NCTI’s 2010 Technology Conference

Over 200 nationally recognized leaders from academia, corporations, government and the media will examine the research, policy, and practices that have emerged to transform and strengthen teaching and learning through the effective use of technology on November 15-16, 2010 at the National Center for Technology Innovation’s (NCTI) Technology Innovators Conference.

7 Dec 2009
Report

What Matters for Staying On-Track and Graduating in Chicago Public Schools: A Focus on Students with Disabilities

This report found that absences, course failures, course credits and GPA all can be used to accurately predict whether ninth-graders with disabilities will graduate from high school. Identifying these early warning indicators is especially crucial for students with disabilities, who drop out of high school at alarming rates.

30 Oct 2009
Report

Psychometric Advances in Alternate Assessment

This report provides the technical details of an alternate assessment design that has resulted from a long-term research and development effort at AIR.

26 Oct 2009
Toolkit

Curriculum Based Measurement Modules

This series of modules Using CBM in a Response to Intervention Framework, provides information about how student progress monitoring, specifically Curriculum Based Measurement (CBM), can be used to determine a student’s response to an intervention.

26 Oct 2009
Toolkit

Screening Reading Tools Chart

The National Center on RTI published this tools chart to assist educators and families in becoming informed consumers who can select reading screening tools that best meet their individual needs.

Project

The National High School Center

Millions of high school students—particularly those with disabilities, with limited proficiency in English, or from low-income backgrounds—need additional support in order to succeed. To address this challenge, the National High School Center promotes the use of research-supported approaches that help all students learn and become adequately prepared for college, work, and life.

23 Aug 2009
Report

The Status of State-level Response to Intervention Policies and Procedures in the West Region States and Five Other States

Response to intervention (RTI) can be both a system for providing early interventions to struggling students and a special education diagnostic tool for evaluating and identifying students with specific learning disabilities.

26 Mar 2009
Toolkit

Capacity Building Planning Tool

This tool is used to assist a State Leadership Team to develop and implement procedures to: scale-up the adoption and use of a targeted evidence-based practice or program and evaluate the extent to which implementation of the practice or program has occurred over time.

26 Mar 2009
Brochure

National Center for Technology Innovation Brochure

The National Center for Technology Innovation (NCTI) advances learning opportunities for all students, with a special focus on individuals with disabilities.

Project

The Access Center: Improving Outcomes for All Students K-8

The Access Center was a national technical assistance center funded by the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) within the Department of Education. The purpose of the Access Center was to improve access to the general education curriculum for students with disabilities at the elementary and middle school levels.

28 Nov 2007
Report

Special Education Financing Study for the District of Columbia

The District has a long history of difficulties in regard to special education that have been well-documented. Through this study, AIR has compiled and analyzed data, visited schools, and conducted interviews and focus groups to learn as much as possible about the current state of special education in the District.

17 Aug 2007
Report

Study of the Fiscal and Operational Efficiency of Oregon’s Regional and Early Intervention/Early Childhood Special Education Programs

The Oregon Department of Education (ODE) contracted with AIR to conduct an independent assessment and analysis of the fiscal and operational efficiency of the State of Oregon’s Early Intervention and Early Childhood Special Education (EI/ECSE) and Regional Low Incidence Programs.

1 Aug 2007
Report

Meeting the Needs of Significantly Struggling Learners in High School: A Look at Approaches to Tiered Intervention

This report, authored by Helen Duffy of the National High School Center, provides an in-depth look at the implementation and structural issues, as well as the needed support required to successfully institute Response to Intervention (RTI) at the secondary school level.

1 Jul 2007
Brief

Demographic and School Characteristics of Students Receiving Special Education in the Elementary Grades

This Issue Brief provides information about elementary school students receiving special education in kindergarten, first grade, third grade, and fifth grade. Data are drawn from the ECLS-K.
1 Mar 2007
Brief

Timing and Duration of Student Participation in Special Education in the Primary Grades

This Issue Brief reports the timing of entry into special education and the number of grades in which students receive special education across the primary grades. Data come from the ECLS-K.

17 Dec 2006
Report

Considering Special Education Adequacy in California

This study focuses on two primary research questions: What analytical techniques exist for estimating the cost of an adequate education for special education students? How might these techniques be applied to estimate the cost of an adequate education for special education students in California, and how do these cost estimates compare to what is currently spent on special education students?

24 Nov 2006
Report

Overview of Public Elementary and Secondary Students, Staff, Schools, School Districts, Revenues and Expenditures: School Year 2004-05 and Fiscal Year 2004

Common Core of Data (CCD) surveys for the 2004-05 school year and the fiscal year 2004, includes data about students enrolled in public education, including the number of students by grade and the number receiving special education, migrant, or English language learner services.

26 Oct 2005
Report

Frequently Asked Questions about Curriculum-Based Measurement

An extensive compilation of the questions asked at the National Center on Student Progress Monitoring's first Summer Institute about Curriculum Based Measurement, as well as others that may be helpful.

Project

Center for Special Education Finance (CSEF)

From 1992–2004, the Center for Special Education Finance (CSEF)—a national technical assistance center funded by the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Special Education Programs—addressed fiscal policy questions related to the delivery and support of special education throughout the United States. A major undertaking for CSEF was the Special Education Expenditure Project, a comprehensive, nationally representative study of special education spending.
26 Jul 2002
Report

Improving Outcomes for Youth with Disabilities in the Juvenile Justice System

This series of monographs addresses the issues of youth with cognitive or behavioral disabilities and their experiences in the juvenile justice system. Staff in the system can better serve these children by receiving support in understanding these issues.